Cross-Dressing - A Brief Historical Journey

Introduction

Cross-dressing and for the purposes of this article we are discussing (men dressing as women) has historically garnished a bad reputation.  The basic idea of a man putting on a pair of  stockings has unfortunately been seen as laughable and pitiful to many - or just plain sinister in the extreme.  It was usually accepted and assumed that a marriage would almost certainly be over should a wife find her husband dressed in female underwear or lingerie.  Even worse is that a manager would lose all respect and authority should his staff become aware about his enthusiasm for lipstick, mascara and stockings.  

From this perspective and gloomy description it may appear that cross-dressing seems like a dire admission of total failure.  Consequently, instead of a man living up to the accepted pillar of strength and ruggedness and the “Hunter Gatherer”, a man who is keen on slipping into something feminine is viewed as a ‘deviant’ of a particularly alarming sort in a societal context and to be avoided at all costs.

“Cross-dressing may be described as the act of wearing clothing more commonly associated with the opposite gender within society”.  In this article we will discuss the usage of the term and introduce the common types of cross dressing both in modern times and in history.  We will introduce various examples both modern and historical to give the reader a broader view and  understanding.

Method

It is accepted in society worldwide and throughout history that there are recognised norms, views, guidelines and laws in relation to the wearing of clothes and what is seen as appropriate for each sex/gender.  Cross-dressing is a construct and a behaviour which counters and challenges the norms and therefore may be viewed as a form of transgender behaviour.  However, mistakenly it is not necessarily a transgender identity as an individual who practices cross-dressing is not always identifying with the opposite sex.

As we discussed earlier the term cross-dressing symbolises an action or behaviour without attributing or prompting causes to explain that behaviour.  A large number of people will instantly attribute and connect cross-dressing behaviour to transgender identity or sexual connotation and fetishism, or even homosexual behavior; nevertheless the term cross-dressing itself actually does in fact not imply any motive at all for the action.

Although it may be suggested that an individual who is a cross-dresser would imply that their behaviour is rather habitual and may infer that they are indeed transgender.  It should be noted here that the term crossdresser or transvestite should be used with care as this will avoid any offence or misunderstanding in peoples descriptive language.

Eonism is the adoption by a male of a female role or vice versa, as in Transvestism eonism is named after Charles Eon de Beaumont; a French political adventurer who died in 1810 after posing  as a woman for a number of years.

Variations of the Term

There are variations on the term cross-dressing, this has emerged in the African-American community, normally alluding to wearing two different brands of clothing at once for example (sports team or logos).  Tommy Hilfiger hat and a FUBU jacket may be viewed as cross-dressing through brand clothing culture, although this is predominantly a unisex example.  It's clear here the this term is exclusively in a negative context again, while its far removed away from the original definition, this usage is becoming increasingly common and is devaluing the actual term and leads to confusion around the more accurate and traditional meaning of the term

‘Cross-dressing’ may also be used to debate as a rhetorical device to court an argument in your opponents terms, in doing so this gives the illusion that you are more co-operative and your argument more difficult to refute.

Divergences in Cross-Dressing

There are a range of variations on the cross-dressing theme and many varying reasons why an individual may engage in cross-dressing behaviour.  Readers please note that these examples are in no way exhaustive but an overview. 

There may be individuals who cross-dress to simply portray a level of comfort or style, they have a particular preference toward clothing that is aimed and marketed to the opposite sex; in this example an individual's cross-dressing may or may not be apparent or even visible to others.

There are those individuals who cross-dress as a ‘shock factor’ to others or throw down a challenge to the social construct and norms we have adopted in our balanced views and what society dictates how and what we wear.

As a woman myself I should make it quite clear that both men and women may cross-dress, this may be to alter or disguise their true identity.  It should also be said that in history women have cross-dressed in order to adopt a male-dominated or male exclusive profession; an example of this is military service; however, on the ‘flip-side’ men have also cross-dressed to avoid mandatory military service.

In the world of the arts single sex troupes often had performers that cross-dressed in order to play roles written for members of the opposing sex.  Cross-dressing may also be used as a comic effect on-stage and screen; for example the British TV show Little Britain.

Drag or more colloquially regarded as Drag Queens is a special performance art based around a form of cross-dressing.  A Drag Queen is a male-bodied individual who performs an over exaggerated feminine character normally wearing an elaborate costume usually of a gaudy sequinned dress and overly high shoes, heavy makeup and a flamboyant wig.  Drag Queens imitate famous people or celebrities in film or pop music, for example Lily Savage or Ru Paul.

Opposite to the above is the Drag King the counterpart to the Drag Queen - a female-bodied person who takes on an exaggerated masculine persona that performs or imitates a male film or pop-music star.  However, some female-bodied individuals undergoing gender reassignment therapy also self-identify as Drag Kings although this use of the term is considered as inaccurate.

Note the transgendered individuals who have undertaken gender reassignment therapies and surgeries are usually not categorsied as cross-dressers.

A transvestic fetishist may be described as a person that is a typical heterosexual male who cross-dresses as part of a sexual fetish.  The term under-dressing is very common around the cross-dressing community and may be described as male cross-dressers  wearing female undergarments under their male clothes.

There may be some that endeavour to project a whole impression and persona that is belonging to another gender, parts such as mannerisms, speech patterns and the mirroring of sexual characteristics.  This action is termed as “trying to pass” or “passing” .  Conversely some may choose to take a much more varied approach and adopt some feminine traits and continue with some masculine traits in their appearance.

For example Conchita Wurst (Eurovision winner 2014) in Copenhagen who was presenting as a woman with a dress and sporting a beard at the same time, sometimes referred to as ‘Genderfuck’.  Finally there are some where the motivation to cross-dress is to undermine the construct and idea that any article of clothing is ‘only for men’ or ‘only for women’.  This variation on a theme may be broadly said that they are mixing clothing from both genders male/female in a style that is referred to as ‘Free-styling’

Clothing & Apparel

Cross-dressing as we have already discussed is an actual determination and socially constructed.  It is considered and known in Western society that trousers have been adopted by women and again this is viewed as non cross-dressing as trousers would be a masculine garment; conversely there are cultures where men have in tradition worn skirt-like garments such as the kilt or sarong.  These are not viewed as female attire and the wearing is not seen as cross-dressing for men.  We can already see how the gender construct and clothing attitudes are somewhat blurred and a ‘grey area’ in some instances.  Our societies are evolving and more global in nature, as men and women are taking on styles of dress associated with other cultures.

In Western society it was once unthinkable for women to wear clothes traditionally associated with men.  In the bible Deuteronomy (22:5) it is cited as an “abomination”, this is no longer the case and Western women are much more often seen wearing trousers, ties and even male hats such as baseball caps.  Notwithstanding, there are many cultures in the world that still preclude women from wearing trousers or other male orientated clothing.

In areas of the world there it is socially frowned upon for men to wear clothing associated with women, even though such clothing is accepted in traditional contexts (as mentioned the kilt).  It should be mentioned that fashion designers have a ‘hand’ in this also by promoting acceptance of skirts and everyday wear for men in the form of contemporary kilt wear; note that this has not been taken up or caught the attention of the general public.

Social Analyses Theories

Female Bodied Cross-Dressers

Women and their behaviour traits generally and historically have received less attention than men, cross-dressing is no exception to this rule.  Nevertheless, there exists some famous examples of cross-dressing female-bodied people throughout history (see examples below in Famous Cross-Dressing People in History).

In Western society cross-dressing through the female gender in the modern world seems to be rare.  Although the question is pertinent today of how many people actually cross-dress; this is extremely difficult to quantify and answer, as it is dependent on the social norms that are ever changing over time.  In the West when only a small number of women wore trousers women in trousers were considered to be cross-dressing.  As a result more women continued to wear trousers and the style gained mainstream social acceptance.; thus it was no longer considered as cross-dressing.  We are all too aware that trousers are now mainstream and a fashion for both sexes however, the broadening of ‘normal’ clothing types for women has clearly made cross-dressing behaviour amongst women much more difficult to identify.  A woman may wear a man's shirt and trousers and underwear without there being the fear of it being categorised as cross-dressing.  This is due to the fact that similar clothing is also produced for women.

A Classic Psychoanalytical Perspective

As this subheading suggests this theory and view of cross-dressing leaned on the role and how this behaviour was ‘taboo’ and viewed as ‘deviant behaviour’.  The dictation and only those items that were gender appropriate are therefore not a general association of an item with one sex but the prohibitions against the item that provided satisfaction to those with a fetish attachment to the cross-dressing ideology.  According to this supposition as articles started to be seen as acceptable for ordinary wear; for example a man's neck-tie on a woman this was a prohibited item in fashion during the 1970’s and they would cease to be viewed as cross-dressers.

The Conundrum of Attributing Motivation for Cross-Dressing

When we consider historical figures when discussing Cross-Dressing clearly it is not related to specific events (an escape or disguise) we can see that it is impractical for us to state clearly what the motives were for cross-dressing then.  As there was a lack of recorded or accurate information we are unable to hypothesise or make an accurate comment here.  In legal documents of court records where cross-dressing may have been a factor the individual may have confessed to whatever they thought would minimise their sentence or punishment. Also accounts by others who may not understand the motivations correctly.  Furthermore, figures in history were often unable to associate themselves as homosexual,transgender, transsexual or transvestites as these typecasts simply had no names or social recognition during that time.

There is also the difficulty of ascertaining the rationale of modern day people who cross-dress.  The only real tangible evidence is that of the person's own statement.  However, this is not always assured as there are examples of individuals citing their cross-dressing expression  to one motive only to later recognise that they may have had another reason.  A classical illustration of this is a transsexual who initially imputed their cross-dressing demeanour to transvestic fetishism (for trans-women) or the commonsensical practicality of male clothing (for trans-men).

Examples of Famous People & Cross Dressing

Greek Mythology

Achilles, dressed in women's clothing, holding a shield while admiring a sword.   Based on ancient legend, Achilles' mother, knowing that her son would die if he fought in the Trojan War, disguised him as a woman and entrusted him to King Lycomedes' household, where he lived among the king's daughters; approximately around *********.

Norse Mythology & Legend

Mjollnir was stolen by the giant Thrym, who asked as ransom the hand of the goddess Freyja. When Freyja refused to go to Thrym, Thor masqueraded as her and succeeded in grabbing the hammer, which had been brought out to consecrate him as Thrym’s bride. Thor then slaughtered Thrym and the other giants with the hammer.

Odin went to the Ruthenians disguised as a warrior called Roster. There he was twice turned down by Rinda. He then wrote runes on a piece of bark and touched her with it, causing her to go mad, and disguised himself as a medicine woman called Wecha, who was allowed to see her. Finally she fell ill; the disguised Odin then said he had medicine with which to cure her but that it would cause a violent reaction. On Odin's advice, the king tied Rinda to her bed, and Odin proceeded to rape her. From the rape was born Váli, who would later avenge Balderus.

Hagbard in the Scandinavian legend of Hagbard and Signy (the Romeo and Juliet of the Vikings). After having slain Signy's brothers and suitors, Hagbard was no longer welcome in the hall of Signy's father Sigar. Hagbard then dressed up as one of his brother Haki's shield-maidens in order to have access to the chambers of his beloved. 

When the handmaidens washed his legs, they asked him why they were so furry and why his hands were so callous. Because of this, he invented a clever verse to explain his strange appearance. Signy, however, who understood that it was Hagbard who had come to see her, explained to the maidens that his verse was truthful. Hagbard was however, deceived by the handmaidens and he was arrested by Sigar's warriors. Hagbard was hanged and Signy committed suicide as Hagbard watched from the gallows.

Frotho I is one of the legendary Danish kings in Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum, where he has a substantial biography. He succeeds his father Hadingus to the throne and replenishes the war-drained treasury by slaying a dragon and winning its treasure. He uses the money to finance expeditions into the Baltic, where he wins victories with clever stratagems (including one where he cross-dresses as one of his own shield-maidens). After some trouble at home he campaigns successfully in Britain and captures London. He finally dies in a war against the king of Sweden.

Hervor from Hervarar saga. When Hervor learnt that her father had been the infamous Swedish berserker Arngrim, she dressed as a man, called herself Hjörvard and lived for a long time as a Viking.

Hindu Mythology

The Mahabharata: In the Agnyat Baas ("exile") period of one year imposed upon the Pandavas, in which they had to keep their identities secret to avoid detection, Arjuna cross-dressed as Brihannala and became a dance teacher.

The goddess Bahuchara Mata: In one legend, Bapiya was cursed by her and he became impotent. The curse was lifted only when he worshiped her by dressing and acting like a woman.

Devotees of the god Krishna: Some male devotees of the god Krishna, specifically a sect called the Sakhi Bekhi, dress in female attire as an act of devotion.  Krishna and his consort Radha had cross-dressed in each other's clothing. Krishna is also said to have dressed as a gopi and a kinnari goddess.

Historical Examples of Cross-Dressing People

Dorothy Lawrence (4 October 1896 – 4 October 1964) was an English journalist who posed as a male soldier to report from the front line during World War I. In 1915, she went to France, where she managed to obtain a military uniform and a false identity. Upon her arrival in Albert, Somme, she found a soldier who took her to the front lines. However, trench life affected her health, and after ten days, she revealed her sex, afraid that if she needed medical attention her true identity would be discovered and those who helped her would be punished. She was arrested and interrogated, suspected of being a spy or a prostitute. She was then sent home under a strict agreement not to write about her experiences.

The legend of Pope Joan alleges that she was a promiscuous female pope who dressed like a man and reigned from 855 to 858. Modern historians regard her as a mythical figure who originated from 13th century anti-papal satire.

Joan of Arc was a 15th century French peasant girl who joined French armies against English forces fighting in France during the latter part of the Hundred Years' War. She is a French national heroine and a Catholic saint. 

After being captured by the English, she was burned at the stake upon being convicted by a religious court, with the act of dressing in male clothing being cited as one of the principal reasons for her execution. A number of witnesses, however, testified that she had said she wore male clothing (consisting of two layers of pants attached to the doublet with twenty fasteners) because she feared the guards would rape her at night.

Anne Bonny and Mary Read were late 17th century pirates. Bonny in particular gained significant notoriety, but both were eventually captured. Unlike the rest of the male crew, Bonny and Read were not immediately executed because Read was pregnant and Bonny claimed to be pregnant as well.

Charles-Geneviève-Louis-Auguste-André-Timothée Éon de Beaumont (1728-1810), usually known as the Chevalier d'Eon, was a French diplomat and soldier who lived the first half of his life as a man and the second half as a woman. In 1771 he claimed that physically he was not a man, but a woman, having been brought up as a man only. From then on she/he lived as a woman. On her/his death it was discovered that her/his body was anatomically male.  This may be seen as an early form of intersex?

George Sand is the pseudonym of Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, an early 19th century Dupin, a French novelist who preferred to wear men's clothing exclusively. In her autobiography, she explains in length the various aspects of how she experienced cross-dressing.  The classical Polish composer Fredric Chopin had a friendship with George Sand that is well documented in historical writings

Rrose Sélavy, the feminine alter-ego of the late French artist, Marcel Duchamp, remains one of the most complex and pervasive pieces in the enigmatic puzzle of the artist's oeuvre. She first emerged in portraits made by the photographer Man Ray in New York in the early 1920s, when Duchamp and Man Ray were collaborating on a number of conceptual photographic works. Rrose Sélavy lived on as the person to whom Duchamp attributed specific works of art, ready mades, puns, and writings throughout his career. By creating for himself this female persona whose attributes are beauty and eroticism, he deliberately and characteristically complicated the understanding of his ideas and motives.

Billy Tipton was a notable jazz pianist and saxophonist in the United States during the Great Depression. He was born Dorothy Lucille Tipton in 1914, but began living as a man in the 1930’s. He was married five times to women, and adopted three boys. He led a full career as a musician and, in later life, as an entertainment agent. Other than his birth family, no one knew of his birth sex or cross-living until after his death in 1989.

Willmer "Little Ax" Broadnax was a lead singer in several important gospel quartets, most famously the Spirit of Memphis Quartet. When he died in 1994, it was discovered that he was female-bodied.

As female enlistment was barred, many women fought for both the Union and the Confederacy during the American Civil War while dressed as men.

Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon, colonial governor of New York and New Jersey in the early 1700’s is reported to have enjoyed going out wearing his wife's clothing, but this is disputed and unconfirmed.

The Chinese legend of Hua Mulan, and the Disney movie Mulan derived from it, featured a cross-dressing heroine.

Eddie Izzard,  British comedian, claims to have cross-dressed his entire life, though some say he does it for shock value?

Conclusion 

The truth of the cross-dressing phenomena is that it is grounded in a highly logical and universal desire the world over.  The basic wish and desire to be the gender of one that you admire so intensely is excited by and maybe the love of the whole thing.  In essence dressing as a woman is merely a dramatic yet let's be clear an essentially reasonable way of becoming closer to the experiences of the sex that they are so profoundly fixated with; and yet we have shown that society has made attempts to arbitrarily bar them from being with them.

We have shown that cross-dressing is in all walks of life and there we think nothing of it in real terms.  We should be able to accept that the adult cross-dresser is no different, they too want to inhabit and live the experiences of women that they admire and have a close affinity with the female form.

Society frowns upon the cross-dressing fraternity and this is borne out in this text and others; we have previously discussed in another piece of writing also. This one thing that ignorance, social norms and societal expectations cloud the judgement and reasoned thinking of many in the world we live in.  I’m  sure in time and like myself the author of this writing people may one day have an unbiased view and come to the conclusion that cross-dressers are also women and have a right to be treated and viewed as such without hinder or malice.  Will we ever see that day that I have just described? No/yes I'm not sure, but that is maybe for another discussion.